Contents

1. Synopsis of the Book's Contents

   The book will consist of an Introduction and twelve chapters of an approximately equal length (about 7,000 words each). There will also be a brief chronology of Chinese history, a bibliography, and an index. What follows are brief outlines of the contents of each chapter.

2. Introduction

   The Introduction will address key theoretical issues, point to the variety of methodological approaches to the study of Chinese religions, delineate the parameters of the study, and introduce the main traditions and key issues. It will start by pointing the difficulties inherent in defining both terms that appear in the title, "religion" and "China," which shape decisions about what to include/exclude from a book such as this, and also influence how we deal with the subject matter. It will then go on to explain how various scholars have approached the study of Chinese religions and grouped the main traditions into broad binary categories, such as institutional religion and diffused religion. The last part of the Introduction will present a schematic overview of key issues and traditions, while pointing to the often ambiguous lines of demarcation and porous boundaries that separate distinct religious groups and traditions.

3. Chapter 1: Earliest Forms and Patterns of Chinese Religions Life

   The first chapter will survey the fragmented data about basic religious beliefs and practices that emerged during the formative stages of Chinese civilization, covering the period from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1050) until the time of Confucius (551-479 BCE?). It will also introduce the earliest sources of information, such as oracle bones and bronze inscriptions, which provide clues about key features of ancient religious life, such as ancestor veneration and belief in a preternatural realm populated by various gods and spirits, which is closely correlated with the human world. There will also be a discussion of Chinese mythology, along with a note on the historical processes that shaped the transformation and marginalization of early mythical narratives under the rationalizing tendencies brought to the fore with the establishment of Confucian hegemony.

4. Chapter 2: Confucius and the Formation of the Early Confucian Tradition

   After noting the many faces and aspects of the Confucian tradition, along with related issues raised by its sometimes disputed classification as a "religion," this chapter will offer a historical survey of early Confucianism. The survey will begin by examining the historical contexts and emerging mores that paved the way for Confucius and his followers, as presented in ancient texts, especially those that were adopted as central components of the Confucian canon under the heading of the "Five Classics." That will be followed with a discussion of the life and teachings of Confucius. The subsequent consolidation of the early Confucian tradition, which initially occupied a relatively marginal position, will be discussed in the context of competition with other schools of thought that flourished during the Warring States period (403-221 BCE), exemplified by the Legalists (fajia) and the followers of Mozi (479-381 BCE?). The diversity of perspectives within the early Confucian tradition will be illustrated by looking at the teachings of Xunzi (fl. 298-238 BCE) and Mengzi (Mencius, 371-289 BCE?), especially their contrasting views about human nature. The chapter will end with a brief section on the grand synthesis enacted by Dong Zhongshu (c. 179-104 BCE), the best-known Confucian of the Han period (206 BCE-220 CE), and the initial adoption of Confucianism as official ideology of the imperial state under Emperor Wu (r. 140-86 BCE).

5. Chapter 3: Early Daoist Texts and the Emergence of Religious Daoism

   After noting the diverging scholarly perspectives on the basic contours and historical development of the Daoist tradition, especially the distinction between "philosophical" and "religious" Daoism and the fuzzy boundaries between Daoism and popular religion, the first half of Chapter 3 will examine key concepts and attitudes presented in Laozi and Zhungzi, the two great classics of philosophical Daoism. That will include a discussion of the conception of Dao (Way) and the spiritual quest for union with it, the cultivation of non-action (wuwei), the incipient interest in quietism and meditation techniques, and the penchant for withdrawal from mundane affairs and fascination with the natural world. The second half of the chapter will survey key trends and traditions that coalesced during the Han period and pawed the way for the emergence of distinct traditions of religious Daoism. These include techniques for achieving longevity, beliefs about immortals (xian), and popular practices such as exorcism, divination, and geomancy. The chapter will end with a section on the emergence and growth of the Celestial Masters, customarily acknowledged as the earliest tradition of religious Daoism.

6. Chapter 4: Traditions of Religious Daoism

   Chapter 4 will begin by exploring significant trends in early religious Daoism by focusing on the writings of Ge Hong (ca. 280-343), the earliest Daoist author to leave a personal point of view, especially his views about the deification of Laozi and his interest in alchemy and the quest for immortality. The main part of the chapter will center on Shangqing (Supreme Clarity) and Lingbao (Numinous Treasure), the two main Daoist traditions in medieval China. It will explore their origins in textual revelations, the socioreligious milieus in which they developed, the scope of Buddhist influences on each of them, and their formulations of Daoist beliefs, doctrines, and practices (such as meditation and ritual). I will also discuss the formation of the Daoist canon. In the concluding sections of the chapter I will briefly note several trends observable during the later history of Daoism, including its use to legitimize imperial rule during the Tang dynasty (618-907) and the establishment of monastic orders, exemplified by the Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) school, formed during the twelfth century and known for its emphasis on interior alchemy.

7. Chapter 5: Spread and Flourishing of Buddhism into China

   This chapter will provide a historical overview of Buddhism in traditional China, covering the main phases of its growth and its multifaceted transformations, from its introduction during the later Han period until the end of imperial rule in the early twentieth century. Some of the larger themes covered will include the translation of scriptures and the formation of the Chinese Buddhist canon; the development of doctrinal taxonomies; the obstacles to the spread of Buddhism; the relationship between the state and the monastic order; the reasons behind the appeal and flourishing of the "foreign" religion; the gradual Sinification of Buddhist beliefs, doctrines, practices, and institutions; and the mutual influences and interactions between Buddhism and other facets of Chinese culture, such as art and literature.

8. Chapter 6: Schools, Beliefs, and Practices of Chinese Buddhism

   The fist part of this chapter will survey the main schools/traditions of Chinese Buddhism, with separate sections on the historical growth and basic teachings of the Huayan, Tiantai, Chan, and Pure Land traditions. I will also discuss popular Buddhist beliefs and practices, including cultic practices associated with widely-venerated Buddhas and bodhisattvas such as Yaoshi, Guanyin, and Dizang, pilgrimages to various "sacred" sites such as the four main Buddhist mountains, convening of vegetarian feasts, celebration of Buddhist festivals, and assorted charitable activities.

9. Chapter 7: Popular Religion

   This chapter will examine the diverse belief and practices usually lumped together under the general category of popular religion (sometimes also referred to as folk religion). The topics surveyed will encompass the syncretic nature of popular religion; its diffused character and lack of formal ecclesiastical structures; its absorption of elements from the "three teachings" of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism; the absence of sacred texts or other documents that articulate a coherent religious view or a unified system of belief; the correlation between the celestial and imperial bureaucracies; and the utilitarian character of popular religious practices such as spirit mediums, exorcism, and divination. Also introduced will be some of the main deities of popular religion, including those associated with the home and the local community, such as the stove god and the earth god; Mazu, the patron goddess of sailors and fisherman; as well as members of the higher celestial bureaucracy, which includes the city god and the Jade Emperor, who occupies a supreme position at the top of the celestial pantheon.

10. Chapter 8: Later History of Confucianism

    Picking up at the end of the survey of early Confucian history presented in Chapter 2, this chapter will tell the story of Confucianism in late imperial China. It will start with a section on the flourishing of traditional Confucian scholarship under the Tang and the new perspectives put forward by the leaders of the guwen (ancient style) movement, amidst a sense of decline in Confucian influence largely brought by the unprecedented flourishing of Buddhism. A major part of the chapter will be devoted to the emergence of Neo-Confucianism (Daoxue) as a reform movement during the Song period (960-1279), although I will also note the greater diversity in Song Confucianism and problematize the teleological approach to writing the tradition's later history in terms of an unqualified triumph of Neo-Confucianism. Within that context, I will examine in some detail the thought of key Neo-Confucian thinkers, with a focus on Zhu Xi (1130-1200), whose version of Neo-Confucianism became the official orthodoxy in late imperial China. The chapter will also cover the social history of the examination system as a key institution responsible for the perpetuation of Confucian dominance, the use of Confucian ideology in the political arena, and the impact of Confucian mores on the status of women in traditional Chinese society.

11. Chapter 9: Patterns of Interaction among Religious Traditions

    This chapter will take a systematic look at the recurring patterns of interaction and engagement among the different religious traditions. It will examine broader models of dealing with religious diversity, and assess the ways in which Chinese of different historical periods construed their religious identities and engaged in varied forms of worship by embracing inclusive notions of religious pluralism. The final sections of the chapter will also cover instances of inter-religious tensions and conflicts, such as the Confucian critiques of Buddhism (and to a lesser extent Daoism), the debates and competitions for patronage between the Buddhist and Daoist, the anti-Buddhist persecutions during the Six Dynasties and Tang periods, and the suppression of popular cults and practices.

12. Chapter 10: Christianity, Islam, and other "Western" Religions

    Buddhism was the most influential but by no means the only religious tradition from the "western religions" to enter China. This chapter will survey the other Western imports that initially came into China during the cosmopolitan Tang dynasty. After brief remarks on the transmission of Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Judaism, the main body of the chapter will focus on Christianity and Islam. The section on Christianity will cover the different waves of Christian missionaries to reach China and describe some of the challenges they faced in their efforts to evangelize the Chinese: the Nestorians, first welcomed to the Tang capital in 635; the Franciscan friars who arrived at the Mongol court in the thirteenth century; the Jesuit missionaries of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and the Protestant missions of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. The section on Islam will examine the history of its growth in China and the unique features of Chinese Islam, including its identity as a religion of minority ethnic groups, its efforts to acculturate to the prevalent Confucian ideology, and the absence of determined efforts to actively propagate the faith and try to win new converts.

13. Chapter 11: Religion in Modern China

    This chapter will cover the main developments and challenges faced by Chinese religions with the onset of the modern era, covering the period from the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911 and the subsequent establishment of a republican government until the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976. The first half of the chapter will cover the Republican era, noting the changing fortunes and predicaments of various religious traditions at a time of great social and political turmoil, economic hardships, and intensive rethinking of China's past and its cultural heritage, including its religious legacy. The second part of the chapter will survey the religious situation during the early period of communist rule, describing the initial communist attitudes towards religion, the gradual imposition of state-imposed controls that limited the freedom of worship and weakened institutional religion, and the wholesale anti-religious attacks and persecutions during the worst excesses of the Cultural Revolution.

14. Chapter 12: Current Trends and the Globalization of Chinese Religion

    The book's final chapter will take a look at recent trends and ongoing developments, both in China and elsewhere, including the Chinese diasporas. The chapter will cover four main areas: the revival of interest in religion in mainland China over the last three decades, amidst continuing governmental control exemplified by the highly-publicized suppression of Falun Gong; the flourishing of Buddhism and the enduring appeal of popular beliefs and traditional forms of worship in Taiwan; the global patterns of religious participation and affiliation among the Chinese diasporas, especially in South East Asia and North America; and finally the dissemination of knowledge about Chinese religions – both within and outside the academia – and the appropriation of select concepts culled from Chinese religious thought and history by popular culture in the West (e.g. Dao, yin/yang, and Zen, the last mediated by Japanese accretions).